The forest is diverse, and so are the peoples whose origins include the medicine now popularly known as ayahuasca. However, few know which peoples consume ayahuasca, how we consume it, what territories we occupy, our historical contact with the Western world, and what constitutes our political resistance today. Faced with a global context in which ayahuasca is currently more accessed by white and economically privileged non-Indigenous people than by Indigenous people, in which academics, scientists, and religious leaders widely discuss the expansion, legalization, democratization, commodification, medicalization, syncretization, and synthesis of medicine, it is necessary to question the importance of the representation and autonomy of Indigenous peoples in the midst of these discussions.
Ayahuasca is as diverse as the peoples who traditionally use it; it is a drink with many names, preparation techniques, compositions, and forms of ingestion.
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The vine, scientifically cataloged as Banisteriopsis caapi, is a plant native to the Amazon Basin; however, the cultural territories of ayahuasca go beyond the tributaries of the great river, extending to the regions of the Andes, the Caribbean, the Pantanal, and the Atlantic Rainforest. Approximately 160 ayahuasca-using Indigenous groups are found in Ecuador, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela. Ayahuasca is as diverse as the peoples who traditionally use it; it is a drink with many names, preparation techniques, compositions, and forms of ingestion. The knowledge and practices surrounding ayahuasca and other medicines of Indigenous peoples make up our scientific, cultural, and genetic heritage.
Our ancient narratives also tell of ceremonial exchanges, alliances, and rivalries between neighboring peoples since before the European invasion. Just as our territories go beyond the political boundaries of modern states, our cosmogonic relationships are broader and more complex than the classifications of language families placed on our peoples. We are families of jaguars, fish, snakes, birds, and other children of forests, rivers, land, and sky; we recognize our spiritual families when we share our songs and stories, and we maintain ancient diplomatic relations. Indigenous cosmovisions were already global before Western “globalization,” which continues to be marked by the invasion and dispossession of our material and immaterial territories: our lands, sciences, technologies, cultures, and knowledge.
The contexts of the contact of Indigenous peoples with the West and the histories of invasion of our territories are also diverse
The contexts of the contact of Indigenous peoples with the West and the histories of invasion of our territories are also diverse: In more than five hundred years of genocide, all our populations have been reduced, many have disappeared, others have lost their languages (but not their knowledge), some made contact only recently, and a few still remain isolated in the forest. We all face racism and violence against our bodies and cultures. We all fight for the defense and recognition of our territories, our rights, and for the construction of the necessary policies to allow us to continue to exist.
In addition to so many urgent problems, we face the difficulty of dialogue on an equal basis with Western institutions, due to the remoteness and marginalization of our territories, alongside the historical lack of public policies and access to technologies. There are many discussions that concern us that are carried out without our knowledge or recognition. In the context of globalization, how is the autonomy of Indigenous peoples represented in relation to ayahuasca and other medicines?
Western interest in ayahuasca has been welcomed by some peoples as an opportunity to forge alliances and to strengthen political and cultural ties. Globalization brings us complex relationships in which some groups have become internationally known for receiving visitors to ayahuasca retreats, but the vast majority continue to be ignored or unknown.
After examining academic research and questioning Indigenous relatives, I have put together the following list of peoples who use ayahuasca in their cultures of origin. Many of these peoples had their territories divided by modern states, others had their populations displaced in the process of occupation and the construction of nations. Some are considered by researchers to have more recent contact with ayahuasca through exchanges with other Indigenous peoples. Those who report having had more recent contact with the Western globalization of medicine are not included.
Calculating a precise number of peoples who use ayahuasca is not a simple task, as it is often difficult to define whether neighboring communities with similar customs and languages constitute distinct ethnic groups. Ethnic identity today is understood as a concept that develops as people organize for their rights. Different names for the same groups increase the difficulty, and sometimes the same name is assigned to several different groups (alternative names, spellings and language families are in parentheses in the list below).
Some peoples were considered extinct; some seem to have abandoned the use of ayahuasca under missionary pressure or national “integration” policies.
Some peoples were considered extinct; some seem to have abandoned the use of ayahuasca under missionary pressure or national “integration” policies. The vast majority of peoples have a few elders who are masters of traditional knowledge and face difficulties in terms of interest or passing on this knowledge to new generations.
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This information is essential to understand the complexity of the contexts of our peoples, the discussions related to ayahuasca, the construction of national and international policies for the protection of our heritage, and for the construction of communication and alliance between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples.
As defined by the common language and cultural characteristics, we include approximately 160 Indigenous peoples who use ayahuasca:
Achagua (Xagua) – Colombia
Achuar (Achual, Achuara) – Ecuador / Peru
Ajyíninka Apurucayali – Peru
Amahuaca (Amenguaca, Sayacu) – Peru
Amahuaca (Pano) – Peru
Amuesha (Yanesha, Amuese, Amueixa, Amoishe, Amagues, Amage, Amajo, Amuetamo) – Peru
Andoke (Andoque) – Peru / Colombia
Angutero (Ancutere, Pioje) – Peru
Apolima – Arara – Brazil
Arabela (Chiripunu) – Peru
Arapaço, Airo-pai (tukano) – Brazil
Ashaninka (Ashaninca, Campa) – Peru / Brazil
Ashéninka (Asheninca) – Peru
Awajún (Aguaruna) – Peru
Awishiri – Peru (considered extinct)
Baniwa (Aruák) – Brazil / Venezuela
Barasana (Paneroa, Eduria, Edulia) – Colombia / Brazil
Baré – Brazil
Bora (Boro) – Peru / Colombia
Cabiyari (Cabiuarí, Cauyarí, Kauyarí, Cuyare, Kawillary) – Colombia
Cacua (Báda, Kákwa) – Colombia
Cahuarano – Peru
Callawaya – (Quíchua), Bolivia – Peru
Candoshi-Shapra (Kandoshi) – Peru / Brazil
Capanahua (Kapanawa) – Peru
Caquinte – Peru
Carabayo (Macusa) – Colombia
Carapana (Mochda, Moxdoa, Karapaná, Karapano, Mextã) – Colombia / Brazil
Carijona (Karijona, Carihona, Umawa, Hianacoto-Umaua) – Colombia
Cashibo-Cacataibo (Kashibo-Kakataibo) – Peru
Chachi (Cayapa, Kayapa) – Ecuador
Chama (Es’e Ejja) – Bolivia
Chamicura (Chamikura) – Peru
Chasutino – Peru / Bolivia
Chayavita (Chayahuita, Shayabit, Chawi, Tsaawi, Tshaahui, Tschhuito, Paranapura) – Peru
Chebero (Jebero, Xebero, Xihuila) – Peru
Chiriruano, Avá guaraní – (Guarani)- Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguai, Argentina
Choco (Choko) – Colombia
Cocama-Cocamilla (Kokama, Huallaga, Pampadeque, Pandequebo, Ucayali, Xibitaoan) – Peru
Cofán (Kofan, Kofane, A’i) – Ecuador / Colombia
Colorado – Tsáchilas (Chibcha) – Ecuador
Conibo – Peru
Coreguage – Colombia
Cubeo (Kubeo, Cuveo, Kobeua, Kubwa, Kobewa, Pamiwa, Hehenawa) – Colombia
Cuiba (Cuiva, Kuiva, Kuiba, Kwiba, Cuiba-Wámonae) – Colombia / Venezuela
Culina (Kulina) – Peru / Brazil
Curripaco (Kurripaco) – Colombia
Desana (Desano, Wina, Boleka, Oregu, Kusibi) – Colombia / Brazil
Embera (Emperã, Eberã, Atrato, Baudó, Catrú, Embena, Eyabida, Chami) – Colombia / Panama
Ese’ejja (Chama) – Bolivia / Peru
Guahibo (Sikuani) – Colombia / Venezuela
Guarani Mbya – Bolivia / Brazil
Guarani Nhandeva – Brazil
Guayabero (Jiw, Cunimía, Mítus, Mítua) – Colombia
Gwanana (Guanano, Wanana, Uanano, Kotiria, Anana, Kótedia) – Colombia
Harambket (Mashco, Amarakaire, Amarakaeri) – Peru
Hianakota-Umana – Brazil
Huachipaeri – Peru
Huambisa (Wambisa) – Peru
Huni Kuin (Pano) Peru / Brazil
Hupda-Maku (Hupde) – Brazil / Colombia
Ikito (Iquito, Iquita, Amacacore, Hamacore, Quiturran, Puca-Uma) – Peru
Iñapari (Iñamari) – Peru
Inga – Colombia
Ingano – Colombia
Isconahua (Iscobaquebu) – Peru
Ixiamas Chama (Tacana) – Bolivia
Juruna – Brazil
Kabuvari – Brazil
Kacha’ – Peru
Kambeba – Brazil
Kamsá (Camsa, Sibundoy, Coche) – Colombia
Kanamari (Família Catuquina) – Brazil
Katuquinas (Pano – Katuquina) – Brazil
Kaxinawa (Pano) – Brazil
Kofan (Cofan) (Quíchua/Quechumaran) – Ecuador / Colombia
Kokama – Brazil
Koreguaje (Coreguaje, Correguaje, Ko’reuaju, Caquetá, Chaocha Pai) – Colombia
Kulinas-madirrás, Kulina-Madihá (Arauá) – Brazil
Kulinas-pano, Kulina (Pano) – Brazil
Kuntanawa – Brazil
Lamistas (Lamista, Lama) – Peru
Macaguan (Macaguane, Hitnü) – Colombia
Machiguenga (Matsikenka, Matsigenga, Matsiganga, Mañaries) (Aruák) – Peru
Mai Huna – Colombia
Maku (Cacua) – Colombia / Brazil
Maku (Macu-camãs, Macu-iuhupde, Macu-nadebes) (Hupde) – Brazil / Colombia
Makuna (Macuna, Buhagana, Yeba, Suroa, Tabotiro Jejea, Umua, Wuhána, Paneroa, Jepa-Matsi) – Colombia / Brazil
Manchinery – Brazil
Marinahua – Peru
Marubo (Pano) – Brazil
Matis – Brazil
Matses (Mayoruna, Morique) – Peru
Mazan – Peru (extinct)
Menimehe – Colombia (considered extinct)
Miranha – Colombia
Mojo (Mojos, Moxo, Moxos) – Bolivia
Muinane (Murui, Muinana, Muinani, Muename) – Colombia
Muísca (Chibchas) – Colombia
Muniche (Otanave, Otanabe, Munichino, Munichi) – Peru
Nanti (Kogapakori) – Peru
Napo Runa, Lower (Orellana Runa, Uku Napo Runa) – Ecuador / Peru
Napo Runa, Upper (Quijos, Napo Kichwa, Awa Napo Runa, Quichuas de Tena) – Ecuador
Noanama Wounaan, Waunana (Chocó) – Colombia
Nomatsiguenga (Nomatsigenka, Atiri) – Peru
Nukini – Brazil
Ocaina – Peru
Omagua (Pariana, Anapia, Macanipa, Yhuata, Umaua, Cambela) – Ecuador / Peru / Brazil
Panobo – Peru (considered extinct)
Pastaza Runa (Canelos, Alama) – Ecuador
Piapoko (Piapoco) – Colombia
Piaroa (Kuakua, Guagua, Quaqua) – Colombia / Venezuela
Pioche – Colombia
Piratapuyo – Colombia / Brazil
Piro (Yine, Mashco Piro, Mashco, Cujareño, Simiranch) – Peru
Pisabo (Pisagua, Pisahua) – Peru
Puinave (Puinabe) – Colombia
Puyanawa – Brazil
Resigaro (Resigero) – Peru
Saliba – Colombia
Secoya (Quíchua-Tukano) – Ecuador / Colombia / Peru
Shanenawa, (Pano) – Peru, Brazil
Shawandawa – Brazil
Shetebo – Peru
Shipibo-Conibo (Pano) – Peru
Shiwiar – Ecuador / Peru
Shuar (Shuara, Jivaro, Jibaro) – Ecuador / Peru
Siona – Ecuador / Colombia
Siriano (Tubu) – Colombia / Brazil
Taiwan – Colombia
Takana – Bolivia
Tamas – Brazil
Tanimuka (Tanimuca-Retuara) – Colombia
Tariano – Brazil
Tatuyo (Pamoa, Oa, Tatutapuyo, Juna) – Colombia / Brazil
Taushiro (Pinchi) – Peru
Tetete – Colombia / Ecuador (considered extinct)
Tikuna (Ticuna, Tukuna) – Brazil / Colombia
Tsachila (Colorados) – Ecuador
Tukano (Tucano) – Colombia / Brazil
Tutapi (Orejon, Oregon, Orechon, Payagua, Mai Ja) – Peru
Tuyuka – Colombia / Brazil
Uitotos, Huitotos, Murui-muinane – Peru
Uranina – Peru
Waikino (Uaikena, Piratapuyo, Urubu-Tapuya) – Colombia
Waimaha – Colombia
Wanano (Kotiria) – Brazil
Waorani (Huaorani. Auca) – Ecuador
Witoto (Huitoto, Uitoto, Minika, Bue) – Colombia / Brazil
Yagua (Yahua, Llagua, Yegua, Yava, Nijyamïï Nikyejaada) – Peru
Yaminawa (Yaminahua, Jaminawá, Yuminahua, Yamanawa, Chitonahua) – Peru / Brazil
Yari – Colombia
Yawanawá, (Pano) – Brazil.
Yebasama – Colombia
Ye’kuana (Makiritari, Maquiritare) (caribe) – Venezuela / Brazil
Yora (Pano) – Peru
Yora (Yura, Yuranahua, Yoranahua, Parquenahua, Nahua) – Peru
Yukuna (Matapi (Matapie) – Colombia
Yuruti – Colombia
Záparo – Ecuador / Peru
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In addition to the sources cited below, this paper relied on oral research in conversations with Indigenous relatives at ceremonies, shamans’ meetings, and meetings of the indigenous movement in Brazil.
Contributions are always welcome. añû.
Art by Karina Alvarez.
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Note: An original version of this paper appeared in Portuguese here.
References
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Union of Iindigenous ayahuasca doctors in Colombian Amazonia (UMIYAC). (2022). Comunicados De Las Autoridades Espirituales De Los Pueblos Amazonicos En Apoyo Al Paro Nacional [Communications from the spiritual authorities of Los Pueblos Amazonicos in support for the national paro]. – https://umiyac.org/
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